Chapter 7: The Verb

(This Chapter Has Not Been Reformatted Yet) #

\chapter{The Verb}

Verbs in Galilean are sometimes confusing when contrasted with other dialects as well-established forms in Eastern Aramaic dialects evolved differently in Western dialects, which became even more pronounced in Galilean. [More examples.]

All verbs in Galilean Aramaic start off as three-letter roots which represent basic concepts (ex. \textit{ktb} = "to write") upon which additional vowels, prefixes and suffixes are added. These patterns of inflection are based upon the following five things:

\begin{enumerate}
\item \textbf{Conjugation}; \textit{Pəal}, \textit{Pa``el}, \textit{Afel}, etc..
\item \textbf{Tense}; Past, Future, Present, Passive Participle, or Infinitive.
\item \textbf{Gender}; Masculine or Feminine.
\item \textbf{Number}; Singular or Plural.
\item \textbf{Person}; First, Second, or Third.
\end{enumerate}

\section{Parts of the Verb}

\subsection{Conjugation}

Galilean Aramaic, like other Aramaic languages, has three major Conjugations. These Conjugations determine the basic vowel pattern that the root takes when forming a Verb, and are traditionally represented by the root \textit{p`l} ("to labor"). These three are:

\noindent\begin{tabu} to \textwidth {X[c] X[c] X[c]}
\Gal{p:(al} - \textbf{\textit{Pəal}}\footnote{Also sometimes referred to as the Hebrew \textit{Qal}.} &\Gal{pa(.El} - \textbf{\textit{Pa``el}} &\Gal{)ap(El} - \textbf{\textit{Afel}}\
General & Intensive\footnote{Sometimes called "Doubled," making the three G, D, C.} & Causative
\end{tabu}

\emph{Originally} in older dialects of Aramaic, \textit{Pəal} was the base form for all verbs (ex. "to walk"); \textit{Pa``el} was an "Intensive" whereby the action-meaning of the root was extended in some more intense or direct manner (ex. "to run"); and \textit{Afel}\footnote{In Galilean there is evidence that the beginning \textit{a} vowel was somewhat reduces for we find an \textit{Af`el} form vocalized as \Gal{t:$kax} $\rightarrow$ \textit{təškaḥ} in \textit{FPT Exodus 22:3}.} was a "Causative" whereby the action done was being provoked or caused by the actor (ex. "to chase").

Now, each these three Conjugations also have corresponding Passives:

\noindent\begin{tabu} to \textwidth {X[c] X[c] X[c]}
\Gal{):tp:(El}~-\textbf{\textit{'\Uh{}\b{t}p\uh{}el}} &\Gal{):tpa(>al}~-\textbf{\textit{'\Uh{}\b{t}pa``al}} &\Gal{):t>ap(al}~-\textbf{\textit{'\Uh{}ttafal}}\
General & Intensive & Causative \
Passive & Passive & Passive\
\end{tabu}

Each of these worked much like how the passive voice works in English, but with General Passive (ex. "to be walked"), Intensive Passive (ex. "to be run"), and Causative Passive (ex. "to be chased").

The three Actives and three Passives make up the 6 most common Conjugational forms found in Aramaic languages. In many cases these distinctions still hold true in Galilean, but like with any language some verbs evolved into new or different shades of meaning, jumbling up activeness, passiveness, intensity, and causation. As such, each verb needs to be learned wits appropriate Conjugations and what each Conjugation means. There \emph{are} also rarer Conjugations (\textit{Po`el}, \textit{Palpel}, and their Passives, etc.), but they are best learned as irregular verbs and memorized separately.

\subsection{Tense}

In Galilean there are 3 major structural Tenses (\textit{Past, Present,} and \textit{Future}), 3 derived tenses (\textit{Past Participle, Imperative,} and \textit{Infinitive}). Besides those there are a number of Compound Tenses that are made with the combination of two verbs (usually including the verb \Gal{hwy} "to be").

\subsection{Gender}

Identical to the Noun there are two Genders: Masculine and Feminine. There is no Neuter Gender in Aramaic. When it comes to expressing things of indeterminate gender (such as abstract concepts, or even where a gender is simply unknown) the general rule of thumb is that it defaults to the Masculine for physical or concrete things and the Feminine otherwise. There are always exceptions.

\subsection{Number}

Also identical to the Noun there are two Numbers: Singular and Plural.

\subsection{Person}

In Galilean, like all other Aramaic dialects, there are three Persons: First, Second, and Third.

\section{Lemma Form}

The \textit{lemma} (or "dictionary") form of Verbs is the \textit{Pə`al} Masculine 3rd Person Singular Past Tense which represents the base 2- or 3-letter root (e.g. \Gal{k:tab} = \textit{"he wrote"}). This is in contrast with English which uses the Infinitive (\textit{"to write"}).

\section{Basic Tenses in \textit{Pə`al}}

The following paradigms outline the basic use of the tenses along with their basic forms in \textit{Pə`al}. It's this paradigm that is built upon to create all other Conjugations. Pips (•) represent the 3 letters of the Verb's root.

\subsection{The Past Tense}

\begin{center}
\noindent\begin{tabu} to 3in {l X[c] c X[c] c}
~ &~& \textit{Singular} &~& \textit{Plural} \
1st Com. &~& \Gal{XaX]XEt} &~& \Gal{X:XaXnaN} \
2nd Com. &~& \footnotemark{}\Gal{X:XaXt} &~& \footnotemark{}\Gal{X:XaXtON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{X:XaX} &~& \footnotemark{}\Gal{X:XaXUN} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{XaXX}at} &~& \Gal{X:XaXEN} \
\end{tabu}
\footnotetext{The Masculine suffix sometimes appears as the more archaic \Gal{-t>ah}.}
\footnotetext{The Feminine suffix very rarely appears as the classical \Gal{-tEN} and the Masculine as \Gal{-tUN}, but otherwise appears to have merged into \Gal{-tON}.}
\footnotetext{Sometimes \Gal{X:XaXU} "in the wild" due to scribal correction, but the listed form is more correct. \citep{kutscher1976}}% Also, the quality of the vowel of the suffix changes to \Gal{O} in III-\Gal{y} verbs and some II-\Gal{w} verbs that take \Gal{O} as their Stem Vowel (such as \Gal{dwr}).}
\end{center}

The Past\footnote{Like all Aramaic dialects, what we refer to here as the "Past" was originally a Perfect which expressed completeness of action, regardless of time. For the most part, it represents a Past Tense as it is used in English, but there are exceptions.} is formed by adding suffixes and vowels upon the root.

\paragraph{The Stem Vowel} Every tense in Galilean has its own Stem Vowel which is determined by the verb. Where in other dialects the vowel is usually correlated to whether the Verb is historically transitive or intransitive or if the vowel falls close to a "guttural" letter (\Gal{h x ( r} which tend to bend vowels towards \Gal{Xa}), in Galilean the Stem Vowels for each verb must simply be memorized.

In the Past Tense paradigm above the Stem Vowel is represented by the \Gal{Xa} on the second radical. With some verbs (such as \Gal{dxl} "to fear" or \Gal{yld} "to give birth") it can be \Gal{E}, and in very rare cases \Gal{O}.

\paragraph{Stem Vowel Notation} Since the two Stem Vowels that other derivative Tenses rely upon are the Past and the Future, we will express them by placing them in subscript next to the Verb's root. Thus -- \Gal{ktb}$_{(a,o)}$ "to write" -- expresses that the Verb \Gal{ktb} has \Gal{Xa} as its Past Stem Vowel and \Gal{O} as its Future Stem Vowel.

\paragraph{Exercise.} Conjugate the following Verbs into the Past Tense using the appropriate Stem Vowel.

\begin{center}
\begin{tabu} to \textwidth {X[c] | X[c]}
\Gal{(bd}${(a,e)}$ & \Gal{$m(}${(a,a)}$\
"to make/do" & "to hear/listen"\
\hline
\Gal{ptx}${(a,a)}$ & \Gal{sbr}${(a,o)}$\
"to open" & "to think/hope"\
\end{tabu}
\end{center}

%Galilean verbs can also take on \Gal{E} where \Gal{Xa} appears on the second radical above.

\subsection{The Present Tense}

\begin{center}
\noindent\begin{tabu} to 3in {l X[c] c X[c] c}
~ &~& \textit{Singular} &~& \textit{Plural} \
Masc. &~& \Gal{XaXEX} &~& \Gal{XaX:XIN} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{XaXXah} &~& \Gal{XaX:XaN} \
\end{tabu}
\end{center}

The Present is formed by taking the base root and "declining" it like an Absolute Noun to match the Subject in both Gender and Number. Unlike Eastern Aramaic dialects where the subject usually follows the Present Verb, in Galilean it usually \emph{precedes} it. For example: \Gal{hU) katEb} \textit{hu' kaṯév} = "He writes."

\paragraph{Stem Vowel} The most common by far is \Gal{E}. In cases where it falls around gutturals (such as with the common \Gal{)mr} "to say") we find \Gal{Xa}.

\paragraph{The Participle}

The Present was originally an Active Participle (\textit{"writing," "going,"} etc.). In Galilean, however, it came to represent a Simple Present and from there developed a unique form of the Participle by preceding the Present with the particle \Gal{m:N} which takes on the meaning of "while" or "when."\footnote{See \citet[p51]{kutscher1976}. Often this was interpreted by Eastern Aramaic speaking scribes as a mistake and the Verb was altered into an Infinitive (see below), so if an oddly-placed Infinitive is found in the wild it may have originally been a Participle.}

\paragraph{Exercise.} Conjugate the following Verbs into the Present Tense by pairing each Personal Pronoun with the appropriate Present Tense form using the appropriate Stem Vowel (\Gal{Xa} when adjacent to a guttural [\Gal{h x ( r}], \Gal{E} otherwise).

\begin{center}
\begin{tabu} to \textwidth {X[c] | X[c]}
\Gal{ktb}${(a,o)}$ & \Gal{xzr}${(a,o)}$\
"to write" & "to return/repeat"\
\hline
\Gal{(br}${(a,o)}$ & \Gal{ktb}${(a,o)}$\
"to pass/cross" & "to kill"\
\end{tabu}
\end{center}

\subsection{The Future Tense}

\begin{center}
\noindent\begin{tabu} to 3in {l X[c] c X[c] c}
~ &~& \textit{Singular} &~& \textit{Plural} \
1st Com. &~& \Gal{):XXOX} or \Gal{n:XXOX} &~& \Gal{n:XXOX} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:XXOX} &~& \multirow{ 2}{*}{\bigg} \Gal{t:XX:XUN}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:XX:XEN} &~& \%\Gal{t:XX:XON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;XXOX} &~& \Gal{y;XX:XUN} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:XXOX} &~& \Gal{y;XX:XaN} \
\end{tabu}
\end{center}

The Future\footnote{In similar manner to the Past Tense, the Future originally indicated an Imperfect (incomplete action).} is formed primarily by adding prefixes upon the root.

The form \Gal{n:XXOX} to express the 1st Person Singular is unique to Palestinian Aramaic dialects and its origins are a bit fuzzy.\footnote{It is believed to be a combination of the Pronoun \Gal{):nah} + the Imperfect (ex. \Gal{):nah ):ktOb} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{n:ktOb}). For a detailed examination of the possibilities of its origins, see \citet[pp.166--167]{fassberg1990}.}

\paragraph{Stem Vowel} The most common is \Gal{O}, as shown above, but it can also be \Gal{E} or \Gal{Xa} depending on the Verb.

\paragraph{Exercise.} Conjugate the following Verbs into the Future Tense using the Stem Vowel in parentheses.

\begin{center}
\begin{tabu} to \textwidth {X[c] | X[c]}
\Gal{$lx}${(a,a)}$ & \Gal{dmK}${(a,e)}$\
"to send" & "to sleep"\
\hline
\Gal{$bq}${(a,o)}$ & \Gal{ptr}${(a,a)}$\
"to leave" & "to explain/interpret"\
\end{tabu}
\end{center}

\subsection{The Imperative}

\begin{center}
\noindent\begin{tabu} to 3in {l X[c] c X[c] c}
~ &~& \textit{Singular} &~& \textit{Plural} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{X:XOX} &~& \multirow{ 2}{*}{\bigg} \Gal{X:X:XUN}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{X:XOXI} &~& \%\Gal{t:XX:XON} \
\end{tabu}
\end{center}

The Imperative is for issuing direct commands. For polite commands, the Future is used instead.

\paragraph{Stem Vowel} Identical to the Future.

\paragraph{Exercise.} Conjugate the Verbs listed under the Future Tense into the Imperative.

\subsection{The Past Participle}

The first of the derived tenses, it is identical to the Present Tense, except that the vowel after the second radical is \emph{always} \Gal{I} (and this acts \emph{as} the Stem Vowel).

\begin{center}
\noindent\begin{tabu} to 3in {l X[c] c X[c] c}
~ &~& \textit{Singular} &~& \textit{Plural} \
Masc. &~& \Gal{X:XIX} &~& \Gal{X:XIXIN} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{X:XIXah} &~& \Gal{X:XIXaN} \
\end{tabu}
\end{center}

\subsection{The Infinitive}

\begin{center}
\Gal{m:XXOX}
\end{center}

The Infinitive usually has the same Stem Vowel as the Future and has a variety of uses in Galilean (predominantly how one would use the English Infinitive). The vowel on the \Gal{m} can sometimes lean towards \Gal{I}.

\paragraph{Stem Vowel} The most common is what is found in the Future. However we often find \Gal{O} despite this.\footnote{\citet[p.29]{kutscher1976}}

\paragraph{The Modal}
The Infinitive can also be used to express a Modal "should," or "would" when used in conjunction with the Verb \Gal{hwy} "to be":

\Gal{mah h:wwah mEmar l:hON} = "What should he have said to them?"

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} Paradigm}

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
\Gal{ktb} (a,o) &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{katb]Et} & \textit{kaṯvéṯ} &~& \Gal{k:tabnaN} & \textit{kəṯávnan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{k:tabt} & \textit{kəṯávt} &~& \Gal{k:tabtON} & \textit{kəṯávton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{k:tab} & \textit{kəṯáv} &~& \Gal{k:tabUN} & \textit{kəṯávun} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{k:tabU} & \textit{kəṯávu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{katb}at} & \textit{kaṯváṯ} &~& \Gal{k:tabEN} & \textit{kəṯáven} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{katEb} & \textit{kaṯév} &~& \Gal{kat:bIN} & \textit{kaṯəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{kat:bah} & \textit{kaṯəváh} &~& \Gal{kat:baN} & \textit{kaṯəván} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{):ktOb} & \textit{'əḵtóv} &~& \Gal{n:ktOb} & \textit{nəḵtóv} \
~ &~& \Gal{n:ktOb} & \textit{nəḵtóv} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:ktOb} & \textit{təḵtóv} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:kt:bUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{təḵtəvún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:kt:bEN} & \textit{təḵtəvén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;ktOb} & \textit{yəḵtóv} &~& \Gal{y;kt:bUN} & \textit{yəḵtəvún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:ktOb} & \textit{təḵtóv} &~& \Gal{y:kt:baN} & \textit{yəḵtəván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{k:tOb} & \textit{kəṯóv} &\multirow{2}{}{\bigg}} & \multirow{2}{}{\Gal{k:tObUN}} & \multirow{2}{*}{\textit{kəṯóvun}}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{k:tObI} & \textit{kəṯóvi} &\%~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past Participle}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{k:tIb} & \textit{kəṯív} &~& \Gal{k:tIbIN} & \textit{kəṯivín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{k:tIbah} & \textit{kəṯiváh} &~& \Gal{k:tIbaN} & \textit{kəṯiván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{m:ktOb} &~& \textit{məḵtóv} \
\end{longtabu}

\section{"Defective" \textit{Pə`al} Verbs}

The previous paradigms are the base forms one can expect from a Regular (sometimes called "Strong") Verb. There are several variations on this basic pattern that arise when certain "weak" letters appear in the root, and many of them are rather common:

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} I-' Verbs}

These verbs begin with \Gal{)}:

\Gal{)mr}${(a,a, imp. o)}$ "to say," \Gal{)kl}${(a,o)}$ "to eat," \Gal{)zl}$_{(a,e)}$ "to go," etc..

In the \textbf{Future} and \textbf{Infinitive}, initial \Gal{)} lengthens to \Gal{E} (ex. \Gal{)mr} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{)Emar}, \Gal{tEmar}, etc.) or is, less often, dropped (\Gal{t:mar}). "In the wild," however \Gal{)} can sometimes be retained in spelling (\Gal{te)mar}).

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} I-y Verbs}

These verbs begin with \Gal{y}:

\Gal{yd(}${(a,a)}$ "to know," \Gal{yhb}${(a,)}$\footnote{The curious case of the verb \Gal{yhb}$_{(a,)}$ "to give" is that it is \textit{never} used in the Future or Infinitive. In those cases, the suppletive verb \Gal{ntN}${(*,e)}$ "to give" is employed instead (and, conversely, is not used otherwise).} "to give," \Gal{yld}${(e,a)}$ "to give birth," etc..

In the \textbf{Future} and \textbf{Infinitive}, \Gal{y} becomes \Gal{E} (\Gal{yd(} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{yyedA(}, \Gal{tEdA(}, etc.) or is, rarely, dropped (\Gal{t:da(}).

In the \textbf{Imperative}, the initial \Gal{y} is dropped (ex. \Gal{yd(} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{dA(}, etc.).

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
\Gal{yd(}$_{(a,a)}$ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{yyedA(} & \textit{yeḏa} &~& \Gal{nEdA(} & \textit{neḏá} \
~ &~& \Gal{nEdA(} & \textit{neḏá} \\ 2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{tEdA(} & \textit{teḏá} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{tEd:(UN}} & \multirow{ 2}{}{\textit{teḏəún}} \\ 2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{tEd:(EN} & \textit{teḏəén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{yEdA(} & \textit{yeḏá} &~& \Gal{yEd:(UN} & \textit{yeḏəún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{tEdA(} & \textit{teḏá} &~& \Gal{yEd:(aN} & \textit{yeḏəán} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{dA(} & \textit{dá} &\multirow{2}{*}{\bigg\}} & \multirow{2}{*}{\Gal{dA(UN}} & \multirow{2}{*}{\textit{dáun}}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{dA(I} & \textit{dái} &\\%~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\\ \multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\\ ~ &~& & \Gal{mEdA(} &~& \textit{medá} \
\end{longtabu}

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} I-n Verbs}

These verbs begin with \Gal{n}:

\Gal{npq}${(a,o)}$ "to go out," \Gal{nsb}${(a,a)}$ "to take," \Gal{npl}$_{(a,o)}$ "to fall," etc..

In the \textbf{Future}, \Gal{n} is dropped (\Gal{npq} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{y:pOq}, \Gal{t:pOq}, etc.). Sometimes it can be still found in spelling, but it's rare.

In the \textbf{Infinitive}, \Gal{n} is dropped and the initial vowel lengthened to \Gal{E}.

In the \textbf{Imperative}, the initial \Gal{n} is also dropped (ex. \Gal{npq} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{pOq}, etc.).

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
\Gal{nsb}$_{(a,a)}$ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{y;sab} & \textit{yəsáv} &~& \Gal{n:sab} & \textit{nəsáv} \
~ &~& \Gal{n:sab} & \textit{nəsáv} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:sab} & \textit{təsáv} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:s:bUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{}{\textit{təsəvún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:s:bEN} & \textit{təsəvén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{n:sab} & \textit{nəsáv} &~& \Gal{y:s:bUN} & \textit{yəsəvún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:sab} & \textit{təsáv} &~& \Gal{y:s:baN} & \textit{yəsəván} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{sab} & \textit{sáv} &\multirow{2}{}{\bigg}} & \multirow{2}{}{\Gal{sabUN}} & \multirow{2}{*}{\textit{sávun}}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{sabI} & \textit{sávi} &\%~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{mEsab} &~& \textit{mesáv} \
\end{longtabu}

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} II-' Verbs}

These verbs have \Gal{)} as their middle letter:

\Gal{$)l} "to ask," (the most common) etc..

Where it would \textit{seem} that this would be a case of irregularity, the \Gal{)} is treated like any normal consonant.

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} II-w Verbs}

These verbs have \Gal{w} as their middle letter (rarely \Gal{y}):

\Gal{qwM}${(a,u)}$ "to stand," \Gal{mwt}${(i,u)}$ "to die," etc..

In the \textbf{Perfect} and \textbf{Imperfect} the \Gal{w} is dropped and replaced by the Stem Vowel (ex. \Gal{qwM} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{qaM}, \Gal{y;qUM}, etc.).

In the \textbf{Present} the \Gal{w} in the Masculine Singular becomes \Gal{-ayye-} (ex. \Gal{qwM} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{qayyeM}).\footnote{Sometimes \Gal{-a)E-} in the wild.}

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
\Gal{qwM}$_{(a,u)}$ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{qamEt} & \textit{qaméṯ} &~& \Gal{qamnaN} & \textit{qámnan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{qamt} & \textit{qámt} &~& \Gal{qamtON} & \textit{qámton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{qaM} & \textit{qám} &~& \Gal{qamUN} & \textit{qámun} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{k:tabU} & \textit{kəṯávu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{qamat} & \textit{qamáṯ} &~& \Gal{qamEN} & \textit{qámen} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{qayyeM} & \textit{qayém} &~& \Gal{qayymIN} & \textit{qaimín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{qayymah} & \textit{qaimáh} &~& \Gal{qayymaN} & \textit{qaimán} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{):qUM} & \textit{'əqúm} &~& \Gal{n:qUM} & \textit{nəqúm} \
~ &~& \Gal{n:qUM} & \textit{nəqúm} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:qUM} & \textit{təqúm} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:qUmUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{təqumún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:qUmEN} & \textit{təqumén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;qUM} & \textit{yəqúm} &~& \Gal{y;qUmUN} & \textit{yəqumún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:qUM} & \textit{təqúm} &~& \Gal{y:qUmaN} & \textit{yəqumán} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{qUM} & \textit{qúm} &\multirow{2}{}{\bigg}} & \multirow{2}{}{\Gal{qUmUN}} & \multirow{2}{*}{\textit{qúmun}}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{qUMI} & \textit{qúmi} &\%~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past Participle}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{qIM} & \textit{qím} &~& \Gal{qImIN} & \textit{qimín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{qImah} & \textit{qimáh} &~& \Gal{qImaN} & \textit{qimán} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{mEqUM} &~& \textit{meqúm} \
\end{longtabu}

\subsection{II-yy,ww Verbs}

These verbs have a consonantal \Gal{ww} or \Gal{yy} in the middle, which are treated like the middle radical of a Strong Verb. Where they are usually in \textit{Pael}, the verb \Gal{cwwx}$_{(a,a)}$ "to call," appears regularly in \textit{Pəal}. The only potential irregularity would occur with a II-yy verb if it were to appear in the Present or Past Participle; however, no examples exist.

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} III-y Verbs}

Perhaps the most common of irregular verbs, these end with \Gal{y} and are all \textit{(a,e)}:

\Gal{b(y}${(a,e)}$ "to ask/want," \Gal{xmy}${(a,e)}$ "to see," \Gal{cly}$_{(a,e)}$ "to pray," etc..

Because of their final vowel, a number of marked changes occur with suffixes:

In the \textbf{Past} the ending merges with the final vowel in the 1st. Com.. It is dropped with the 3rd Masc. Sing. which becomes \Gal{-ah} \textit{-ah}, the 3rd Fem. Sing. which becomes \Gal{-at} \textit{aṯ}, the 3rd Masc. Pl. which becomes \Gal{-ON} \textit{-on}. In the 3rd Fem. Pl. it becomes consonantal as \Gal{-yyaN} \textit{-yan}.

In the \textbf{Present} and the \textbf{Past Participle} the \Gal{y} is treated as the second vowel in the Masc. Sing. and becomes consonantal in all other endings. Quite often in the Masc. Pl. the final \Gal{-N} is dropped.\footnote{For a detailed examination of this phenomenon with examples, see \citet[3§A, pp.43-51]{kutscher1976}.}

In the \textbf{Future}, like the Past, the 3rd Masc. Pl. and Fem. Pl. endings become \Gal{-ON} \textit{-on} and \Gal{-yyaN} \textit{-yan}.

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
\Gal{cly} (a,e) &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{calEt} & \textit{çaléṯ} &~& \Gal{c:lEnAN} & \textit{çəlénan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{c:lEt.} & \textit{cəlét} &~& \Gal{c:lEt.ON} & \textit{çəléton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{c:lah} & \textit{çəláh} &~& \Gal{c:lON} & \textit{çəlón} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{k:tabU} & \textit{kəṯávu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{c:lat} & \textit{çəláṯ} &~& \Gal{c:lyyaN} & \textit{çəlyán} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{calE} & \textit{çalé} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{calayyiN} & \textit{çaláiyin} \
~ &~& ~ & ~ &~& \Gal{calayy} & \textit{çalái} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{calyyah} & \textit{çalyáh} &~& \Gal{calyyaN} & \textit{çalyán} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{):clE} & \textit{'əçlé} &~& \Gal{n:clE} & \textit{nəçlé} \
~ &~& \Gal{n:clE} & \textit{nəçlé} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:clE} & \textit{təçlé} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:clON}} & \multirow{ 2}{}{\textit{təçlón}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:clEN} & \textit{təçlén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;clE} & \textit{yəçlé} &~& \Gal{y;clON} & \textit{yəçlón} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:clE} & \textit{təçlé} &~& \Gal{y;clayyaN} & \textit{yəçalyán} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{c:lI} & \textit{çəlí} &\multirow{2}{}{\bigg}} & \multirow{2}{}{\Gal{c:lON}} & \multirow{2}{*}{\textit{çəlón}}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{c:layy} & \textit{çəlái} &\%~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past Participle}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{c:lE} & \textit{çəlé} &\multirow{ 2}{*}{\bigg{}& \Gal{c:layyiN} & \textit{çəláiyin} \
~ &~& ~ & ~ &~& \Gal{c:layy} & \textit{çəlái} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{c:lyyah} & \textit{çəlyáh} &~& \Gal{cal:yyaN} & \textit{çaləyán} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{m:clE} &~& \textit{məçlé} \
\end{longtabu}

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} III-n Verbs}

These verbs have \Gal{n} as their final letter:

\Gal{zbN}${(a,o)}$ "to buy," \Gal{t(N}${(a,o)}$ "to lift/carry," \Gal{tqN}$_{(a,o)}$ "to be in good order/proper," etc..

There is only a rather subtle difference in the 1st Person Past Tense, where the \Gal{-naN} ending merges with the final \Gal{N}:

\begin{center}
\Gal{zbN} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{z:bannaN} $\rightarrow$ \Gal{z:banaN} \textit{zəḇánan}
\end{center}

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al} III-Doubled Verbs}

These verbs have the same letter for their second and last radicals.

\section{Basic Tenses in \textit{Pael}} \section{Basic Tenses in \textit{Af`el}} \section{Basic Tenses in \textit{'Əṯpə`el}} \section{Basic Tenses in \textit{'Əṯpaal}}
\section{Basic Tenses in \textit{'Əttaf`al}}

\section{Less Common Forms}
\subsection{Basic Tenses in \textit{Poel} \& \textit{'Əṯpoal}}
\subsection{Basic Tenses in \textit{Palel} \& \textit{'Əṯpalal}}
\subsection{Basic Tenses in \textit{Palpel} & \textit{'Əṯpalpal}}
\subsection{Basic Tenses With Other Quadraliterals}

\section{The Regular Verb Paradigms}

\subsection{\textit{Pə`al}}

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
~ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{katb]Et} & \textit{kaṯvéṯ} &~& \Gal{k:tabnaN} & \textit{kəṯávnan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{k:tabt} & \textit{kəṯávt} &~& \Gal{k:tabtON} & \textit{kəṯávton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{k:tab} & \textit{kəṯáv} &~& \Gal{k:tabUN} & \textit{kəṯávun} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{k:tabU} & \textit{kəṯávu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{katb}at} & \textit{kaṯváṯ} &~& \Gal{k:tabEN} & \textit{kəṯáven} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{katEb} & \textit{kaṯév} &~& \Gal{kat:bIN} & \textit{kaṯəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{kat:bah} & \textit{kaṯəváh} &~& \Gal{kat:baN} & \textit{kaṯəván} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{):ktOb} & \textit{'əḵtóv} &~& \Gal{n:ktOb} & \textit{nəḵtóv} \
~ &~& \Gal{n:ktOb} & \textit{nəḵtóv} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:ktOb} & \textit{təḵtóv} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:kt:bUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{təḵtəvún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:kt:bEN} & \textit{təḵtəvén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;ktOb} & \textit{yəḵtóv} &~& \Gal{y;kt:bUN} & \textit{yəḵtəvún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:ktOb} & \textit{təḵtóv} &~& \Gal{y:kt:baN} & \textit{yəḵtəván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{k:tOb} & \textit{kəṯóv} &\multirow{2}{*}{\bigg}} & \Gal{k:tObUN} & \textit{kəṯóvun}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{k:tObI} & \textit{kəṯóvi} &~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{m:ktOb} &~& \textit{məḵtóv} \

\end{longtabu}

\subsection{\textit{Pa``el}}

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
~ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{kat.bEt} & \textit{kattəvéṯ} &~& \Gal{kat.EbnaN} & \textit{kattévnan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{kat.Ebt} & \textit{kattévt} &~& \Gal{kat.EbtON} & \textit{kattévton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{kat.Eb} & \textit{kattév} &~& \Gal{kat.bUN} & \textit{kattəvun} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{kat.EbU} & \textit{kattévu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{kat.bat} & \textit{kattəváṯ} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{kat.bEN} & \textit{kattəven} \
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{kat.EbI} & \textit{kattévi} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{m:kat.Eb} & \textit{məḵattév} &~& \Gal{m:kat.bIN} & \textit{məḵàttəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{m:kat.:bah} & \textit{məḵàttəváh} &~& \Gal{m:kat.baN} & \textit{məḵàttəván} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{):kat.Eb} & \textit{'əḵattév} &~& \Gal{n:kat.Eb} & \textit{nəḵattév} \
~ &~& \Gal{n:kat.Eb} & \textit{nəḵatév} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:kat.Eb} & \textit{təḵattév} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:kat.bUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{}{\textit{təḵàttəvún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:kat.bIN} & \textit{təḵàttəvín} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;kat.Eb} & \textit{yəḵattév} &~& \Gal{y;kat.bUN} & \textit{yəḵàttəvún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:kat.Eb} & \textit{təḵattév} &~& \Gal{t:kat.baN} & \textit{təḵàttəván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{kat.Eb} & \textit{kattév} &\multirow{2}{*}{\bigg}} & \Gal{kat.EbUN} & \textit{kattévun}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{kat.EbI} & \textit{kattévi} &~ & \Gal{kat.EbU} & \textit{kattévu}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past Participle}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{m:kat>ab} & \textit{məḵattáv} &~& \Gal{m:kat.bIN} & \textit{məḵàttəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{m:kat.bah} & \textit{məḵàttəváh} &~& \Gal{m:kat.baN} & \textit{məḵàttəván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{m:kat>abah} &~& \textit{məḵattávah}\

%\footnote{\Gal{m:$alfmfh} FPT Exodus 22:2 $\rightarrow$ \Gal{m:$alamah} \textit{məšalamah}.} \

\end{longtabu}

%\footnotetext{\Gal{y:$al:M} FPT Exodus 22:2 $\rightarrow$ \Gal{y:$alEM} \textit{yəšalem}.}
%\footnotetext{\Gal{m:$alfmfh} FPT Exodus 22:2 $\rightarrow$ \Gal{m:$alamah} \textit{məšalamah}.}

\subsection{\textit{Af`el}}

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
~ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{)akt:bEt} & \textit{'aḵtəvéṯ} &~& \Gal{)aktEbnaN} & \textit{'aḵtévnan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{)aktEbt} & \textit{'aḵtévt} &~& \Gal{)aktEbtUN} & \textit{'aḵtévton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{)aktEb} & \textit{'aḵtév} &~& \Gal{)akt:bUN} & \textit{'aḵtəvún} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{):ktEbU} & \textit{'əḵtévu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{)akt:bat} & \textit{'aḵtəváṯ} &~& \Gal{)akt:bEN} & \textit{'aḵtəvén} \ %\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{):ktEbI} & \textit{'əḵtévi} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{maktEb} & \textit{maḵtév} &~& \Gal{makt:bIN} & \textit{maḵtəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{makt:bah} & \textit{maḵtəváh} &~& \Gal{makt:baN} & \textit{maḵtəván} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{):ktEb} & \textit{'aḵtév} &~& \Gal{naktEb} & \textit{naḵtév} \
~ &~& \Gal{naktEb} & \textit{naḵtév} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{taktEb} & \textit{taḵtév} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{takt:bUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{}{\textit{taḵtəvún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{takt:bIN} & \textit{taḵtəvín} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{yAktEb} & \textit{yaḵtév} &~& \Gal{yAkt:bUN} & \textit{yaḵtəvún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{taktEb} & \textit{taḵtév} &~& \Gal{takt:baN} & \textit{taḵtəván} \ %\footnote{\Gal{t:$kax} FPT Exodus 22:3 $\rightarrow$ \textit{təškaḥ}. Where those examples in Palestino-Tiberian pointing consistently have \textit{patah}, this example in Palestinian pointing demonstrates the reduction of the initial \textit{a} vowel of the classical \textit{Afel} to \textit{ə}, making it \textit{Əfel}. In verbs that begin with a vowel, this was once again lengthened back to \textit{a}.}

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{)aktEb} & \textit{'aḵtév} &\multirow{2}{*}{\bigg}} & \Gal{)akt:bUN} & \textit{'aḵtəvun}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{)aktEbI} & \textit{'aḵtévi} &~ & \Gal{)aktEbU} & \textit{'aḵtévu}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past Participle}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{maktab} & \textit{maḵtav} &~& \Gal{makt:bIN} & \textit{maḵtəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{makt:bah} & \textit{maḵtəváh} &~& \Gal{makt:baN} & \textit{maḵtəván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{maktabah} &~& \textit{maḵtávah} \

\end{longtabu}

\subsection{\textit{'Əṯpə`el} - (UNCHECKED)}

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
~ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{):tkatb]Et} & \textit{'əṯkaṯvéṯ} &~& \Gal{):tk:tabnaN} & \textit{'əṯkəṯávnan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{):tk:tabt} & \textit{'əṯkəṯávt} &~& \Gal{):tk:tabtON} & \textit{'əṯkəṯávton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{):tk:tEb} & \textit{'əṯkəṯév} &~& \Gal{):tk:tabUN} & \textit{'əṯkəṯávun} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{k:tabU} & \textit{kəṯávu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{):tkatb}at} & \textit{'əṯkaṯváṯ} &~& \Gal{):tk:tabEN} & \textit{'əṯkəṯáven} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{m:tkatEb} & \textit{məṯkaṯév} &~& \Gal{m:tkat:bIN} & \textit{məṯkaṯəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{m:tkat:bah} & \textit{məṯkaṯəváh} &~& \Gal{m:tkat:baN} & \textit{məṯkaṯəván} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{):tk:tEb} & \textit{'ətkətév} &~& \Gal{n:tk:tEb} & \textit{nəṯkətév} \ %\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& \Gal{n:ktOb} & \textit{nəḵtóv} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:tk:tEb} & \textit{təṯkətév} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:tkatbUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{təṯkaṯbún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:tkatbEN} & \textit{təṯkaṯbén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;tk:tEb} & \textit{yəṯkətév} &~& \Gal{y;tkatbUN} & \textit{yəṯkaṯbún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:tk:tEb} & \textit{təṯkətév} &~& \Gal{y;tkatbaN} & \textit{yəṯkaṯbán} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{):tk:tEb} & \textit{'əṯkəṯév} &\multirow{2}{}{\bigg}} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{):tk:tEbUN}}& \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{'əṯkəṯévun}}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{):tkatbI} & \textit{'əṯkaṯbí} \%&~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\

%\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past Participle}}\
%Masc. &~& \Gal{k:tIb} & \textit{kəṯív} &~& \Gal{k:tIbIN} & \textit{kəṯivín} \
%Fem. &~& \Gal{k:tIbah} & \textit{kəṯiváh} &~& \Gal{k:tIbaN} & \textit{kəṯiván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{m:tk:tabah} &~& \textit{məṯkətávah} \

\end{longtabu}

As it was mentioned earlier, vowel reduction was beginning in Galilean Aramaic, especially among initial vowels reducing to \textit{šəwa}. As such initial \textit{šəwa} may sometimes lean towards \textit{e}.

\subsection{\textit{'Əṯpa``al} - (UNCHECKED)}

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
~ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{):tkat.bEt} & \textit{'əṯkattəvéṯ} &~& \Gal{):tkat>abnaN} & \textit{'əṯkattávnan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{):tkat>abt} & \textit{'əṯkattávt} &~& \Gal{):tkat>abtON} & \textit{'əṯkattávton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{):tkat>ab} & \textit{'əṯkattav} &~& \Gal{):tkat>abUN} & \textit{'əṯkattávun} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{k:tabU} & \textit{kəṯávu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{):tkat.bat} & \textit{'əṯkattəváṯ} &~& \Gal{):tkat>abEN} & \textit{'əṯkattáven} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{m:tkat>ab} & \textit{məṯkattáv} &~& \Gal{m:tkat.bIN} & \textit{məṯkattəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{m:tkat.bah} & \textit{məṯkattəváh} &~& \Gal{m:tkat.baN} & \textit{məṯkattəván} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{):tkat>ab} & \textit{'ətkattáv} &~& \Gal{n:tkat>ab} & \textit{nəṯkattáv} \ %\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& \Gal{n:ktOb} & \textit{nəḵtóv} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:tkat>ab} & \textit{təṯkattáv} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:tkat>bUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{təṯkattəvún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:tkat>bEN} & \textit{təṯkattəbén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;tkat>ab} & \textit{yəṯkattáv} &~& \Gal{y;tkat.bUN} & \textit{yəṯkattəvún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:tkat>ab} & \textit{təṯkattáv} &~& \Gal{y;tkat.baN} & \textit{yəṯkattəván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{):tkat>ab} & \textit{'əṯkattáv} &\multirow{2}{}{\bigg}} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{):tkat>abUN}}& \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{'əṯkattávun}}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{):tkat>abI} & \textit{'əṯkattaví} \%&~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{m:tkat>abah} &~& \textit{məṯkattávah} \

\end{longtabu}

Here, too, initial \textit{šəwa} may sometimes lean towards \textit{e}.

\subsection{\textit{'Əttaf`al} - (UNCHECKED)}

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
~ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{):t>akt:bEt} & \textit{'əttaḵtəvéṯ} &~& \Gal{):t>aktabnaN} & \textit{'əttaḵtávnan} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{):t>aktabt} & \textit{'əttaḵtávt} &~& \Gal{):t>aktabtON} & \textit{'əttaḵtávton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{):t>aktab} & \textit{'əttaḵtav} &~& \Gal{):t>aktabUN} & \textit{'əttaḵtávun} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{k:tabU} & \textit{kəṯávu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{):t>akt:bat} & \textit{'əttaḵtəváṯ} &~& \Gal{):t>aktabEN} & \textit{'əttaḵtáven} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{m:t>aktab} & \textit{məttaḵtáv} &~& \Gal{m:t>akt:bIN} & \textit{məttaḵtəvín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{m:t>akt:bah} & \textit{məttaḵtəváh} &~& \Gal{m:t>akt:baN} & \textit{məttaḵtəván} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{):t>aktab} & \textit{'əttaḵtáv} &~& \Gal{n:t>aktab} & \textit{nəttaḵtáv} \ %\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& \Gal{n:ktOb} & \textit{nəḵtóv} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:t>aktab} & \textit{təttaḵtáv} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:t>akt:bUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{təttaḵtəvún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:t>akt:bEN} & \textit{təttaḵtəbén} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;t>aktab} & \textit{yəttaḵtáv} &~& \Gal{y;t>akt:bUN} & \textit{yəttaḵtəvún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:t>aktab} & \textit{təttaḵtáv} &~& \Gal{y;t>akt:baN} & \textit{yəttaḵtəván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{):t>aktab} & \textit{'əttaḵtáv} &\multirow{2}{}{\bigg}} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{):t>aktabUN}}& \multirow{ 2}{*}{\textit{'əttaktávun}}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{):t>aktabI} & \textit{'əttaḵtávi} \%&~ & \Gal{k:tObU} & \textit{kəṯóvu}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{m:t>aktabah} &~& \textit{məttaḵtávah} \

\end{longtabu}

In the \textit{'Əttaf`al} especially, the initial \textit{šəwa} may lean towards \textit{e}.

\section{Unusual Forms}

\subsection{Strong Middle Vowel}

Some Verbs have a middle vowel that is treated as a consonant. In these cases, it is represented by a \Gal{ww} or \Gal{yy} and they are almost exclusively \textit{Pa``el}.

Common Verbs in this class include \Gal{syy(} ("to aid, support"), \Gal{cwwx} ("to cry out, shout"), etc.. The only difference is when vowels collide, as \Gal{w} or \Gal{y} in some cases may be absorbed into the strong vowel (either orthographically or in speech).

\subsection{Quadraliterals}

Some Verbs have four radicals and are derived from Nouns, ancient Verbal forms that have perturbed over time, or are new innovations. Examples of these you will occasionally come across include \Gal{$yzb} ("to save"), \Gal{prns} ("to sustain, support"), \Gal{trgM} ("to translate"), \Gal{hyymN} (with a strong \Gal{y}, "to believe, trust"), and \Gal{qntr} ("to rebuke, chide").

These tend to be conjugated similarly to \textit{Pael} and \textit{'Əṯpaal}, and since the second radical in a Quadraliteral Verb is often a Vowel (\Gal{y}, \Gal{w}, or a strong \Gal{yy}), a nasal (\Gal{m} or \Gal{n}), or a liquid (\Gal{r} or \Gal{l}) it is usually treated as the first part of the doubled radical.

\noindent\begin{longtabu} to \textwidth {l c X[c] X[c] c X[c] X[c]}
~ &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Singular}}} &~& \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{\textbf{Plural}}} \
\endhead
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Past}}\
1st Com. &~& \Gal{hayym:nEt} & \textit{haiməéṯ} &~& \Gal{hayymEnaN} & \textit{haiménan}\footnotemark \footnotetext{Remember \Gal{hyymN} also follows III-n rules.} \
2nd Com. &~& \Gal{hayymEnt.} & \textit{haimént} &~& \Gal{hayymEntON} & \textit{haiménton} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{hayymEN} & \textit{haimén} &~& \Gal{hayym:nUN} & \textit{haimənun} \%\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{kat.EbU} & \textit{kattévu} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{hayym:nat} & \textit{haimənáṯ} %&\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}
&~& \Gal{hayym:nEN} & \textit{haimənen} \
%~ &~& & &~& \Gal{kat.EbI} & \textit{kattévi} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{m:hayymEN} & \textit{məhaimén} &~& \Gal{m:hayym:nIN} & \textit{məhaìmənín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{m:hayym:nah} & \textit{məhaìmənáh} &~& \Gal{m:hayym:naN} & \textit{məhaìmənán} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg{}& \Gal{):kat.Eb} & \textit{'əḵattév} &~& \Gal{n:kat.Eb} & \textit{nəḵattév} \
~ &~& \Gal{n:kat.Eb} & \textit{nəḵatév} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{t:kat.Eb} & \textit{təḵattév} &\multirow{ 2}{}{\bigg}}& \multirow{ 2}{}{\Gal{t:kat.bUN}} & \multirow{ 2}{}{\textit{təḵàttəvún}} \
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:kat.bIN} & \textit{təḵàttəvín} &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;kat.Eb} & \textit{yəḵattév} &~& \Gal{y;kat.bUN} & \textit{yəḵàttəvún} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:kat.Eb} & \textit{təḵattév} &~& \Gal{t:kat.baN} & \textit{təḵàttəván} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{m:kat>abah} &~& \textit{məḵattávah}\

%\footnote{\Gal{m:$alfmfh} FPT Exodus 22:2 $\rightarrow$ \Gal{m:$alamah} \textit{məšalamah}.} \

\end{longtabu}

There are also a number of rare Verbal patterns that are derived from roots with three radicals, and you may come across these occasionally:

\paragraph{\textit{Palpel} & \textit{'Əṯpalpal}}

The \textit{Palpel} comes from a Verb with only two strong radicals (such as II-w or III-Doubled) where they are duplicated. For example, the Verb \Gal{+wl} ("to cast, throw") in \textit{Palpel} becomes \Gal{+l+l} ("to lift, handle, move around, confuse") where the Verb \Gal{gll} ("to roll") becomes \Gal{glgl} (also "to roll" but more common).

\paragraph{\textit{Polel} & \textit{'Əṯpolal}}

The \textit{Polel} form of the Verb is quite rare, is formed similarly to \textit{Palpel}, but as its name suggests it has a first vowel of \Gal{w} and a doubling of the last radical.

\section{Irregular Verbs}

The following Verbs listed here simply defy the normal paradigms, and as a result must be memorized.

\subsection{\textit{hwy} - "To Be" -- REVIEW VOCALIZATIONS}

Both a staple, and quite irregular, the verb "to be" has some uniquely Galilean quirks. The spellings below are standardized.\footnote{Derived from the forms that appear in \citet[161a]{sokoloff1992}.} \textit{Very often} one will find consonantal \textit{wau} (\Gal{ww}) spelled with a single \Gal{w}. In \textit{late texts} sometimes it is spelled with \Gal{b} (realized as /\textit{v}/) or is dropped altogether. Finally, the quality of the vowel after \Gal{h} is debatable in many places, where it could be equally plausible as \textit{šəwa`} or \textit{pəṯaḥ}.

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Present}}\
Masc. &~& \Gal{hawwE} & \textit{hawé} &~& \Gal{hawwayyiN} & \textit{hawaiyín} \
Fem. &~& \Gal{hawwyyah} & \textit{hauyáh} &~& \Gal{hawwyyaN} & \textit{hauyán} \
\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Future}}\
1st Com. &\multirow{ 2}{*}{\bigg{}& \Gal{)Eh:wwE} & \textit{'ehəwé} &~& \Gal{n:hwwE} & \textit{nəhwé} \
~ &~& \Gal{nEh:wwE} & \textit{nehəwé} \
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{tEh:wwE} & \textit{tehəwé} &~& \Gal{t:hwwoN} & \textit{təhwón} \
%2nd Fem. &~& ~ & ~ &~& \%\Gal{t:kt:bON} \
3rd Masc. &~& \Gal{y;hwwE} & \textit{yəhwé} &~& \Gal{y;hwwoN} & \textit{yəhwón} \
3rd Fem. &~& \Gal{t:hwwE} & \textit{təhwé} &~& \Gal{y:hawwyyaN} & \textit{yəhauyán} \

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Imperative}}\
2nd Masc. &~& \Gal{h:wwI} & \textit{həwí} &\multirow{2}{*}{\bigg}} & \Gal{h:wwoN} & \textit{həwón}\
2nd Fem. &~& \Gal{h:wwayy} & \textit{həwái} &~ & \Gal{h:wO} & \textit{həwó}\

\multicolumn{7}{l}{\textbf{Infinitive}}\
~ &~& & \Gal{lam:hwwE} &~& \textit{laməhwé} \

\end{longtabu}

\subsection{\textit{'iṯ} - "To Have"}

Where treated more like a genuine Verb and conjugated in other Aramaic dialects, the word \Gal{)It} ("there is") is treated more like a Particle in Galilean. However, given its principal use as the Verb "to have," I have opted to handle it here.

When combined with \Gal{l:-} + the appropriate Pronominal Suffix, we arrive at the following:

\begin{center}
\noindent\begin{tabu} to 4in {l X[r] | X[l] X[r] | X[l]}
~ & \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Singular}} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Plural}} \
1st Com. & \Gal{)It~lI} &"I~have" & \Gal{)It~laN} &"We~have" \
2nd Masc. & \Gal{)It~laK} &"You~have" & \Gal{)It~l:kON} &"You~have" \
2nd Fem. & \Gal{)It~lEK} &"You~have" & \Gal{)It~l:kEN} &"You~have" \
3rd Masc. & \Gal{)It~lEh} &"He~has" & \Gal{)It~l:hON} &"They~have" \
3rd Fem. & \Gal{)It~lah} &"She~has" & \Gal{)It~l:hEN} &"They~have" \
\end{tabu}
\end{center}

To express the \textbf{Negative} ("does not have") one uses \Gal{lEt}\footnote{Originally a combination of \Gal{la)} and \Gal{)It}.} (ex. \Gal{lEt~lEh~s:par} = "He doesn't have a book").

To express the \textbf{Past} of "to have" one uses \Gal{hwy} in the 3rd Person (either \Gal{h:wwoN} or \Gal{h:wwat}) + \Gal{l:-} and the appropriate Pronominal Suffix in similar fashion (ex. \Gal{h:wwoN~lI} = "I had") and for the negative one precedes it with \Gal{la)}.

\subsection{Galilean Verbs of Note}

There are a number of distinct dialectical features in Galilean where certain verbs are used or not used in contexts that would be common in other dialects.

\paragraph{swm} The verb \Gal{swM} ("to put, to place") where very common in Eastern Aramaic dialects is completely absent from Galilean and other Western dialects.\footnote{For an ironic example, see the Syriac Peshitta's rendition of Luke 23:46.} Instead the idea of "putting" or "placing" is expressed with the Verb \Gal{yhb} ("to give") plus the Particle \Gal{(al}, with Pronominal Suffixes when appropriate, or by using the verb \Gal{msr} ("to deliver").